Nineteenth Century Cemetery
Symbolism
By Nancy A. Ross-Stallings, August
7, 2014
Figure 1.
English, 17th
Century Death’s
Head Headstone.
During the late eighteenth century, in Great Britain and the
United States, a movement swept across these countries that extended into the
early twentieth century. This was called the Beautification of Death Movement,
and it was an alteration in the way death was regarded, in a religious and
social way. During Colonial Times, death was feared, mortality rates were high,
and the symbolism that is found on surviving headstones of the time period
includes skulls, crossed bones, “death heads (stylized skulls with wings on
either side of the skull)”, and skeletons. Most of the stones used at the time
as grave markers were dark – brown, black and charcoal grey (Figure 1). Graveyards
(or burying grounds as they were commonly called) were grim, crowded, and in
Europe, many graves were re-used a number of times.
However, in France, England and in the new United States,
growing numbers of cemeteries were developed which were a departure from the
old fashioned, crowded and depressing burying grounds. The first of these planned cemeteries in the
United States was Mount Auburn Cemetery, established in Watertown,
Massachusetts, in 1831. The cemetery was distinctive in that it was not a
family burying ground, and it was not a church graveyard. The cemetery was
established on an old farm, and was referred to as a “cemetery” which is taken
from a Greek word meaning “a sleeping place.” The name and layout of this
cemetery departed from the harsh appearance of a “graveyard.”The cemetery was
174 acres in size, and was also renowned as an arboretum. The Massachusetts
Horticultural Society helped with the landscaping in the cemetery. One of the
founders of the cemetery was Dr. Jacob Bigelow, an M.D. who was concerned about
the threat of disease in old church burying grounds. The design of Mount Auburn
was inspired by Per’e Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, and Abney Park in London.
Mount Auburn was seen as the beginning of the American parks and gardens
movement. By the late 1840s, similar cemeteries began dotting the landscapes in
such cities as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Syracuse, and Baltimore.
The principal characteristics of these cemeteries are that
they were laid out as what we would consider today as a park, with curved roads,
landscaping, possibly a pond, and a wide variety of unique trees, shrubs,
flowers and plantings. Some have non-denominational chapels, beautiful gates,
benches, gazebos, and statuary. The headstones are generally made of light
colored marble, limestone, and other white or pale stones. By the beginnings of
the nineteenth century, stone masonry was coming into its own as a developed
trade, with specialists who could carve intricate headstones, and the advent of
trains enabled the delivery of headstone blanks and completed headstones to
more remote areas. Marble headstones and blanks were imported from Europe, but
also marble quarries in the United States were developed, and headstone blanks
also were produced domestically.
Concurrently, the Victorian Period experienced a resurgence
in the “’Language of Flowers” with dictionaries published. Nosegays and other
floral arrangements were traded among couples as well as friends and relatives,
with specific meanings attributed to flowers, fruits, and other foliage.
Coupled with this was the further development of symbols, predominately from
Classical, Medieval and Renaissance literature, as well as Biblical sources
that were incorporated into popular culture, including the Beautification of
Death Movement. These included angels, certain animals, objects such as chains,
anchors, clocks, hourglasses, obelisks, harps, gates, trees, books, lamps, and
an abundance of other items. Human elements such as hands, the heart, a pointed
finger, and the eye were also used (Figures 2, 3, 4). Also incorporated were
symbols associated with a person’s life, such as memberships in the Masons, the
Woodsmen of the World, International Order of Oddfellows, Eastern Star, and
religious groups. Some of these associations were abbreviated with commonly
recognized letters. In cemeteries with Catholic interments, headstones often
had letters associated with religious phrases such as “Manus Dei (the hand of
God)” or “Hic Sepultis, or H.S. (here lies buried)”. For Jewish interments,
Hebrew words were often placed on the headstone.
* * *
Figure 2.
Broken chain, symbolizing the end of earthly existence.
* * *
Figure 3.
Life or time,
with top showing the future,
and below the inscription showing the past.
* * *
Figure 4.
The obelisk, symbolizing regeneration, eternal
life, with drapery symbolizing the act of mourning.
* * *
This period was also famous for the development of elaborate,
sentimental epitaphs; this word comes from Greek, and means “a funeral
oration.” Epitaphs became so popular that books were published with suggested
epitaphs for loved ones’ gravestones. One example from an 1873 book “Hill’s
Manual” states:
“This lovely bud, so young, so fair, Called hence by early
doom, Just came to show how sweet a flower, In Paradise would bloom.”
Other common epitaphs would soften the blow of death; for
example variations such as “Only sleeping” were employed. Another popular
epitaph of the times was reference to the deceased going on to a higher reward,
or to a place where pain and troubles do not exist.
Of course, many families came up with unique epitaphs that
described the deceased, their accomplishments, and sometimes the tragedy of
their deaths. While epitaphs are not so commonly used on modern headstones,
they continue to appear. One modern example, a perfect inscription for Mel
Blanc, the voice of Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig, Sylvester the Cat, Yosemite Sam,
Fred Flintstone, Woody Woodpecker, and many other cartoon characters, stated
“That’s All Folks!” “Man of 1000 Voices, Beloved Husband and Father.” He passed
away in 1989 and is interred in Hollywood, California.
In Harrodsburg, the Springhill Cemetery was started in 1860,
after the community cemetery immediately southeast of the downtown area began
to fill up by the 1850s. Springhill Cemetery is an excellent example of a
cemetery that was laid out at its inception as a community cemetery with a
park-like setting, and it exhibits many of the attributes of a cemetery
inspired by the Beautification of Death Movement. The varieties of trees,
shrubs, and other plantings in this cemetery is remarkable, and the cemetery
also features outstanding examples of Victorian and Edwardian Period monuments
with decorative elements bearing the iconographies associated with Victorian
symbolism. Some of the interments at this cemetery are dated earlier than 1860,
because family members elected to remove their loved ones from the older
cemetery and reinter them at Springhill.
Following the trend, many rural cemeteries, both family and community
cemeteries, as well as cemeteries associated with churches, show the influences
of the Beautification of Death Movement as people continued to be interred over
the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In many cemeteries
with Protestant Christian interments, the deceased are laid out in rows, with
the grave in front of a headstone that faces the east. The philosophy was that
when the Second Coming occurred, the deceased could rise up and walk toward the
Lord.
Examples of the symbolism seen at Springhill Cemetery include
obelisks. The obelisk headstones are a product of the Egyptian Revival in
architecture that occurred in the nineteenth century. It symbolizes a ray of
sunlight in Egyptian cosmology, but Victorians soon interpreted it as symbolic
of death and pointing to heaven. Obelisks also varied in design, with crosses,
and urns topping them in some cases, as well as draperies, symbolizing the
drapes over a funeral bier (Figure 4).
A stylized weeping willow tree carved in bas relief is a
very popular motif for headstones of this period. The willow was a symbol of
weeping and sadness for the Victorians. In Christian symbolism, it is
associated with the gospel of Christ because the tree will flourish and remain
whole no matter how many branches are cut off
The depiction of roses in bas relief sculpture on the
headstone conveys sorrow and the brevity of earthly existence. Roses in
Victorian cemeteries frequently adorn the gravestones of women. For the
deceased who died young, including children, roses or other flowers are
frequently depicted with broken stems, symbolizing a life cut short.
Other foliage has specific meanings and these examples are
one of many: lilies are associated with motherhood, and an Easter Lily with
resurrection, while daisies symbolize innocence or childhood and young people
in general. Cornucopias symbolize the bounty of God and heaven. Acorns
symbolize latent greatness or strength and the power of spiritual growth.
Shocks of wheat symbolize the end of a fruitful life, and eternal life in
Heaven. When shown with a sickle, it is symbolic of the Divine Harvest. A
wreath of flowers or leaves symbolizes victory in death. If it is with a Latin
cross, it means victory of the Redemption. Sometimes the wreath is shown draped
over an obelisk (Figure 4), urn or the top of a gravestone, or an angel carries
it. It is usually associated with an adult. If the flowers or leaves are a
specific species, it assumes the meaning of that species; for example, if of
ivy, it means conviviality, friendship, and a symbol of faithfulness and
eternal immortality.
Animals are also associated with gravestones. A few
examples: A snake with its tail in its mouth symbolizes eternity, a Circle. A
dove with an olive twig in its beak means that it is after the troubles of
death, and the idea of peace in the future life. On the grave of a young woman,
a dove may mean purity and modesty. A lamb is the most popular motif for the
grave of a baby or small child, symbolizing innocence, and the soul of the
deceased. If on the grave of an adult, it means the deceased was a devout Christian.
Generally the lamb is reclining, and often the head is turned to face the
viewer of the headstone. A dog represents watchfulness and fidelity; in some
cases, it is a portrait of a favorite dog of the deceased.
One of the most popular motifs of the time period is the use
of hands as headstone symbols. A bas relief of a wrist and hand, male or
female, depending on the sex of the deceased, is frequently depicted in a long
sleeved garment. The index finger is generally pointing upward, to heaven, showing
where the deceased has gone. Clasped hands of the same sex mean the hope of
being together again. It may be accompanied by an epitaph ”Till we meet again.”
If the hands are those of a man and a woman, it symbolizes the union of
marriage. The cuffs give the sex of the represented hand: a straight shirt cuff
is male, sometimes with a button or cufflink, while a flared or ruffled cuff is
female. A male hand with a broken blossom symbolizes God claiming a flower for
His garden in heaven. If the hand is holding a broken link in a chain, it has
the same meaning.
Mourning figures on large headstones and monuments can be
smaller figures or life size or larger. The use of a woman bent in grief goes
back to Greek reliefs from the fourth and fifth century B.C. The figures are
sometimes, but rarely, male. It symbolizes the grief or prayers of the
surviving family, and may be depicted sitting, standing, kneeling or weeping.
It may be clinging to a cross, symbolizing the song “Rock of Ages.” These
statues may have been commissioned but were also available in dozens of styles
from Italy, and as stock items from dealers.
Victorians believed that most angels were women, and usually
portrayed female angels. On a gravesite, what the angel is depicted as doing is
the most important part of the symbol, since they are said to be messengers or
attendants of God. An angel holding a scroll or banner was taking an inventory
of the person’s life. An angel holding a trumpet announced Judgment Day. An
angel with its right hand extended, palm open showed guardianship of a human
being, while both hands extended was an invitation. A kneeling angel looking
up, with clasped hands was conducting intercession on behalf of the deceased,
while a kneeling angel with clasped hands and looking down was in prayer.
While this article cannot begin to do justice to the vast
array of symbolism in a nineteenth century cemetery, interested readers are
urged to learn more about this fascinating window into the beliefs of their
nineteenth and early twentieth century ancestors. Suggested sources are
presented below. Books out of print can be found at used book dealers, or
ordered through interlibrary loan. The sources below are the tip of the ice
berg for this fascinating topic and are personal favorites of mine. Once people
learn the meanings of the headstones and statuary in these beautiful
cemeteries, visiting them will be a fun and absorbing hobby.
* * *
Suggested Reading:
Brown, John Gary 1994. Soul
in the Stone: Cemetery Art from America’s Heartland. University Press of
Kansas, Lawrence, KS. The photos are beautiful, and the narrative is fun to
read.
Jordan, Terry 1982. Texas Graveyards: A Cultural Legacy.
University of Texas Press, Austin. This is not just about Texas! Jordan
introduces the Southern Folk Cemetery, their layout and grave markers, elements
of which are in Kentucky, and a variant of the Beautification of Death
Movement. He also discusses Catholic cemeteries, and Hispanic Cemeteries. This
book is one of the best introductions to nineteenth cemeteries in the South I
have ever seen.
Hacker, Debi 2001. Iconography of Death: Common Symbolism of
Late 18th Through Early 20th Century Tombstones in the
Southeastern United States. Chicora Foundation, Inc., Columbia, SC. You can
tuck this into a purse or bag and visit your favorite cemetery!
Kahlert, John M. 1981
Pioneer Cemeteries: Door County, Wisconsin. Meadow Lane Publishers,
Bailey’s Harbor, WI. The black and white photos of grave stones in this book
are stunning and very interesting.
Keister, Douglas 2004. Stories
in Stone: A Field Guide to Cemetery Symbolism and Iconography. Gibbs Smith,
Publisher. Layton, UT. Hard bound, fits in a jacket pocket, color photos and
very comprehensive. He has every symbol I have ever seen in a cemetery in this
compact, pretty little book! Enjoy!
Laderman, Gary 1996. The
Sacred Remains: American Attitudes Toward Death, 1799-1883. Yale University
Press, New Haven, CT. Traces the changes over time in the nineteenth century. A
good foundation toward understanding the Beautification of Death Movement, and
its effect on American culture.
Little, M. Ruth 1998. Sticks
& Stones: Three Centuries of North Carolina Gravemarkers. University of
North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. A wonderful history of cemeteries in this
state, with insights on stonemasons who carved these stones, as well as
beautiful photos of the cemeteries and headstones. The first chapters cover the
“old graveyards,” grim as they were.
Meyer, Richard E., Editor 1992. Cemeteries
& Gravemarkers: Voices of American Culture. Utah State University
Press, Logan, UT. Numerous authors have chapters in this volume. Chapters
include loggers graves, childrens’ headstones, African-Americans, New Orleans
cemetery architecture, epitaphs and personality, the Upland South Folk
Cemetery, tourist uses of cemeteries in the nineteenth century, Navajo, Zuni
and Morman cemeteries, among other topics.
